# MSC exosomes for orthopedic repair

Rating: Early — Mostly animal or cell studies; few or uncontrolled human data
Type: Therapy
Updated: 2026-10-16
Canonical: https://heretic.bio/articles/msc-exosomes-for-orthopedic-repair.html

> Mesenchymal stem cell-derived small extracellular vesicles (MSC-sEVs, historically "MSC exosomes") are the most clinically advanced cell-free orthobiologic class outside of platelet-rich plasma. The 2025–2026 literature is a turning point: the first randomized, double-blind, dose-escalation human trial of intra-articular human umbilical-cord MSC-exosomes (hUC-MSC-Exos) for knee osteoarthritis was published (PMID: [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/)) and a dose-escalation human application of an umbilical-cord MSC-sEV product (EVA-100) was reported by EVast Bio. Underneath that early-human signal sits a much larger and mechanistically coherent preclinical literature on chondrocyte protection, immune resolution, and tendon/meniscus/disc repair.

## Executive Summary

Orthopedic indications are the leading near-term clinical target for MSC-exosome therapeutics for three reasons:

  1. **Local delivery is tractable.** Intra-articular, intradiscal, intra-lesional, and topical injection bypass the biodistribution problem that plagues systemic EV delivery.
  2. **The mechanism matches the disease.** Cartilage is avascular and chondrocytes do not divide; paracrine signalling that suppresses MMP activity, restores aggrecan/COL2A1 expression, and shifts macrophages toward an M2 phenotype is exactly the biology that MSC-EVs deliver.
  3. **Manufacturing tractability.** MSC-sEVs can be produced from umbilical cord, bone marrow, adipose, and synovial MSCs under defined GMP conditions, with MISEV2023-compliant characterization (PMID: [38326288](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38326288/)).



**Bottom line for indications (2026 evidence posture):**

Indication | Best evidence | Tier | Key caveat  
---|---|---|---  
Knee osteoarthritis (KL 2–3) | Randomized human dose-escalation trial + rat meta-analysis | Early-human positive signal | Small n, 12-week follow-up, structural-cartilage durability unknown  
Cartilage regeneration (general) | Systematic review of in vivo studies | Preclinical solid | Mechanism consistency across sources  
Rotator cuff / tendon repair | Multiple preclinical RCT-style animal models + early human case series | Preclinical | No Phase II RCT yet  
Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) | Preclinical meta-analysis with hydrogel carriers | Preclinical | Mostly rodent; translation to humans uncertain  
Ligament (ACL) repair | Limited preclinical | Speculative | Need properly powered studies  
Bone healing | Preclinical | Adjunct, not primary | Often combined with scaffolds  
  
## 1\. Why MSC-Exosomes for Joints and Tendons

MSC-sEVs inherit much of the regenerative signalling of their parent cells (the paracrine hypothesis of MSC action) without the cell. The cargo relevant to orthopedic repair:

  * **Chondroprotective miRNAs** — miR-140-5p, miR-125b, miR-320c, miR-485-3p, let-7a-5p — that repress MMP13, ADAMTS5, and pro-inflammatory NF-κB signalling in chondrocytes.
  * **Anti-inflammatory cytokines and lipid mediators** — resolvin precursors, TSG-6, IL-1Ra.
  * **Growth factor cargo** — TGF-β, IGF-1, HGF, VEGF carried on EV surface or interior.
  * **Mitochondrial-transfer fragments** — partially functional mitochondria or mtDNA that can rescue stressed chondrocytes.
  * **Surface ligands** — PD-L1, integrins, and tetraspanins (CD9/CD63/CD81) that mediate homing to inflamed cartilage.



The mechanism converges on four effects in joints:

  1. **Chondrocyte phenotype rescue** — restored COL2A1/aggrecan expression, reduced MMP13/ADAMTS5.
  2. **Macrophage re-polarization** — M1 → M2 shift in synovium, reducing IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6.
  3. **Subchondral bone modulation** — suppression of aberrant subchondral remodelling.
  4. **Pain signalling modulation** — both through reduced inflammation and direct effects on nociceptive neurons (miR-124, EVs crossing to dorsal root ganglia in animal models).



In tendons, MSC-sEVs promote tenocyte proliferation, increase COL1A1/COL3A1 expression, reduce adhesion-related fibrosis, and accelerate tendon-to-bone healing at the enthesis.

## 2\. Knee Osteoarthritis — The 2025–2026 Human Signal

### 2.1 Wang Y, Kong Y, Du J, et al. hUC-MSC-Exos for knee OA (PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/))

This is the most rigorous published human trial of an MSC-exosome product for knee OA as of mid-2026.

  * **Product:** Human umbilical cord MSC-derived exosomes (hUC-MSC-Exos).
  * **Trial:** Randomized, double-blind, dose-escalation Phase I/IIa. Three dose arms (low / medium / high).
  * **Population:** 41 patients, 45 knees, Kellgren-Lawrence grade 2–3 knee OA.
  * **Follow-up:** 12 weeks.
  * **Findings reported:**
  * Safety: no serious adverse events attributed to product; injection-site reactions mild and transient.
  * Preliminary efficacy: dose-dependent improvement in WOMAC pain and function scores and in VAS pain versus baseline; medium- and high-dose arms separated from low-dose by week 8.
  * MRI cartilage metrics: trends toward reduced cartilage loss in higher-dose knees (not powered for structural endpoint).
  * **Limitations:** Small n, single-center, 12-week follow-up, no placebo-only arm in published interim, and structural durability unproven. Authors call for larger multicenter trials.
  * **Mechanistic highlights:** In vitro and rat OA models accompanying the clinical arm showed suppression of IL-1β-induced inflammation, restoration of aggrecan and COL2A1, and reduced MMP13 in cartilage explants treated with the same hUC-MSC-Exos preparation.



> **Caveat:** "Promising for knee OA" is now defensible as a clinical research statement. It is _not_ yet defensible as a marketed therapy outside a registered trial.

### 2.2 EVast Bio — EVA-100 (umbilical-cord MSC-sEV)

EVast Bio announced (March 2025) the world's first human application of an umbilical-cord MSC-sEV therapy (EVA-100) for knee OA, in a dose-escalation study reporting cartilage regeneration signals and a favourable safety profile. This is a parallel development to PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/) and uses a similar source tissue. Source: [EVast Bio press release, 2025-03-05](https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/05/3037770/0/en/evast-bio-achieves-world-s-first-exosome-therapy-application-for-knee-osteoarthritis.html).

### 2.3 Wang Z, Hu Z, Niu L, et al. Rat-model meta-analysis (PMID [40529485](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40529485/))

Systematic review and meta-analysis of MSC-exosome studies in rat OA models. Consistent effect sizes for:

  * Improved OARSI cartilage histology scores.
  * Reduced synovitis scores.
  * Reduced MMP13 and increased COL2A1 immunostaining.
  * Improved pain-related behaviour (weight-bearing asymmetry, paw withdrawal).



This preclinical base is the reason the human PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/) result is biologically plausible rather than an isolated observation.

### 2.4 Su J, Qi Y, Niu L, et al. Synovial MSC-EV systematic review (Front Pharmacol 2025)

Su et al. systematically reviewed synovial-MSC-derived exosomes (SMSC-Exos) for cartilage repair. The review concluded:

  * SMSC-Exos induce chondrocyte proliferation and reduce matrix degradation in vitro and in rodent OA in vivo.
  * Effects are mediated primarily by functional miRNAs (miR-140-5p, miR-485-3p, miR-320c, miR-199a-3p).
  * Risk of bias in primary studies is unclear; higher-quality clinical work is needed.
  * PROSPERO CRD420250651715.



Citation: Su J, Qi Y, Niu L, Wang Y, Wei B, Ma B, Kong K, Zhai Z, Xu Y (2025). _Front Pharmacol_ 16:1617874. doi [10.3389/fphar.2025.1617874](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1617874).

### 2.5 Song et al. PRP-exosome size and OA outcomes (Orthop J Sports Med 2025)

A 2025 study (Song I, Glass NA, Sander EA, Martin JA, et al., OJSM 13:23259671251360410) examined whether the size distribution of platelet-rich-plasma EVs influences outcomes in knee OA treatment. This is relevant because the PRP literature is converging with the exosome literature as the active paracrine fraction of PRP is increasingly identified as its EV content.

## 3\. Tendon and Rotator Cuff Repair

### 3.1 Chen J et al. BMSC-exosomes in rotator cuff repair (J Transl Med 2025)

Chen J, Wang Z, Yi M, et al. **Regenerative properties of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in rotator cuff tears.** _J Transl Med._ 2025;23:60. doi [10.1186/s12967-024-06029-2](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-024-06029-2). PMID: [39478122](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39478122/) (citation as listed in J Transl Med 23:60).

  * Demonstrated BMSC-exosomes accelerate tendon-to-bone healing and improve biomechanical strength at the enthesis in rat rotator-cuff models.
  * Histological improvements included more organized collagen fibres, reduced scar tissue, and better fibrocartilage transition zone.



### 3.2 Mechanistic themes in tendon repair

  * **Angiogenesis** — VEGF and miR-126 cargo promote neovascularization in early repair.
  * **Tenocyte proliferation** — EVs stimulate tenocyte COL1A1 expression and proliferation.
  * **Anti-fibrotic signalling** — miR-29a-3p and miR-29b suppress collagen I over-deposition, reducing adhesions.
  * **Enthesis regeneration** — BMSC-sEVs drive fibrocartilage-specific gene expression at the bone-tendon interface, the most clinically fragile part of rotator-cuff repair.



### 3.3 Earlier systematic reviews

Tan SSH et al. **Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes for cartilage repair: a systematic review of preclinical in vivo studies.** PMID: [32159464](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32159464/). Although focused on cartilage, this is the methodological anchor for downstream tendon/disc MSC-EV systematic reviews.

## 4\. Intervertebral Disc Degeneration (IDD)

### 4.1 Wang B et al. Exosome-loaded hydrogels for IDD (Front Biosci 2025, PMID [40613300](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40613300/))

Wang B, Xie D, Huang J, et al. **The Role of Exosome-Loaded Hydrogels in Improving Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Animal Studies.** _Front Biosci (Landmark Ed)._ 2025;30(6):38302. PMID: [40613300](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40613300/). PROSPERO CRD420250649970.

Key pooled findings:

  * Disc height index (DHI) preservation vs. degenerative controls.
  * Improved MRI grade and histological grade in treated discs.
  * Inhibition of matrix degradation (MMP13, ADAMTS5) and cellular aging (p16, p21, β-galactosidase) in nucleus pulposus cells.
  * Hydrogel carriers (GelMA, hyaluronic acid, self-assembling peptides) outperform bolus EV injection in retention and effect size.



### 4.2 Cartilage endplate-targeted engineered EVs

Zhan J, Cui Y, Zhang P, et al. **Cartilage Endplate-Targeted Engineered Exosome Releasing and Acid Neutralizing Hydrogel Reverses Intervertebral Disc Degeneration.** _Advanced Healthcare Materials._ 2025;14:e2403315. Demonstrates that engineering EVs for endplate targeting (e.g., with an acidic-pH-responsive release) is an active line of investigation.

### 4.3 Reprogramming-adjacent strategies

Ma W, Wang W, Zhao L, et al. **Reprogramming to restore youthful epigenetics of senescent nucleus pulposus cells for mitigating intervertebral disc degeneration and alleviating low back pain.** _Bone Research._ 2025;13:35. Although this is a partial-reprogramming paper rather than an EV paper, it is relevant because EV-mediated delivery of Yamanaka-factor mRNAs is a candidate next-generation approach.

## 5\. Ligament, Meniscus, Bone

  * **Ligament (ACL) healing:** Yanuar A et al. **Prospect of exosome in ligament healing: a systematic review.** _SCCAA._ 2023\. Limited preclinical data; biomechanical improvements in animal models but translation is speculative.
  * **Meniscus:** Small-animal studies show MSC-EVs enhance meniscal fibrochondrocyte proliferation and matrix deposition; no human trials yet.
  * **Bone healing is most relevant as an adjunct** — MSC-sEVs are increasingly studied as osteogenic adjuvants to scaffolds and as carriers for BMP-2 mimics, but they are not the primary intervention in any current orthopaedic trial.



## 6\. Mechanistic Cross-Cutting Themes

These findings are not specific to one joint or tendon, but recur across the orthopedic MSC-EV literature:

Mechanism | miRNA / cargo | Effect  
---|---|---  
M2 macrophage polarization | miR-124, miR-223, TSG-6 | Reduced synovial inflammation  
Chondrocyte anabolism | miR-140-5p, miR-125b, TGF-β | ↑ Aggrecan, ↑ COL2A1  
Chondrocyte catabolism repression | let-7a-5p, miR-29b | ↓ MMP13, ↓ ADAMTS5  
Mitophagy rescue | tRNA-derived fragments, PINK1 activators | ↑ Mitochondrial quality in stressed chondrocytes  
Ferroptosis suppression | miR-129-5p, GPX4 upregulation | Reduced chondrocyte iron death  
Senescence suppression | sirtuin-activating cargo | ↓ p16, ↓ p21 in senescent chondrocytes  
Cartilage lubrication | Proteoglycan-4 / lubricin transfer | Reduced friction at articular surface  
  
For mechanisms that intersect with the broader Heretic stack: see [Mitochondrial Health](mitochondrial-health.html) (mitophagy), [Autophagy](autophagy.html) (senescence suppression), and [Hallmarks of Aging - Canonical Framework](hallmarks-of-aging.html).

## Uses

### 7.1 Source cell hierarchy for joints

  * **Umbilical cord MSC-sEVs (hUC-MSC-Exos)** — best-evidenced in PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/). Easier GMP, young donor tissue, higher proliferation.
  * **Bone marrow MSC-sEVs (BMSC-Exos)** — most-studied in rotator-cuff and IDD literature.
  * **Adipose MSC-sEVs (ADSC-Exos)** — abundant source, useful for cytokine-primed (e.g., TNF-α + IFN-γ) preconditioning.
  * **Synovial MSC-sEVs (SMSC-Exos)** — Su et al. 2025 reviews; tissue-matched to cartilage.
  * **Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived MSC-sEVs (iMSC-EVs)** — emerging for uniform manufacturing and engineered cargo.



### Uses

Reporting standards from MISEV2023 (PMID [38326288](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38326288/)) require:

  * Particle concentration (particles/mL via NTA or TRPS).
  * Protein concentration (μg/mL).
  * Particle-to-protein ratio (purity marker; high = pure vesicles).
  * Particle number per dose.
  * Total protein per dose.



PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/) reports dose escalation by particle count; this is the format future trials should adopt.

### 7.3 Pretreatments and engineered strategies** — a recurring research theme

  * **Cytokine priming** (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β) of parent MSCs shifts EV cargo toward anti-inflammatory miRNAs.
  * **Hypoxia preconditioning** (1–5% O₂) upregulates pro-angiogenic and pro-survival miRNAs.
  * **TGF-β / BMP priming** enhances chondrogenic and osteogenic cargo.
  * **3D culture / spheroid MSC culture** produces EVs with higher yield and potency per particle.
  * **Genetic engineering** of parent MSCs to overexpress specific miRNAs (e.g., miR-140-5p, miR-320c, let-7a-5p) is now common in preclinical work (Tao SC 2017; Kong R 2023; Shao L 2025).
  * **Surface engineering** — adding chondrocyte-targeting peptides (e.g., CAP, WYRGRL) for cartilage homing is in PMID [40529485](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40529485/)-line studies.



### 7.4 Carrier matrices** — for non-injected delivery

  * **Hydrogels** (GelMA, HA, alginate, self-assembling peptides) — dominant in IDD and cartilage-defect models.
  * **Scaffold composites** — collagen sponges, decellularized ECM, 3D-printed PCL/PLA scaffolds.



## 8\. Safety, Adverse Events, and Contraindications

Across the published preclinical and early-human orthopedic MSC-EV literature:

  * **No serious adverse events attributed to MSC-sEV intra-articular injection** in the trials reviewed (PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/); small Phase I EVast Bio series).
  * **Common mild events:** transient injection-site pain, swelling, low-grade effusion; comparable to saline placebo or PRP placebo arms.
  * **Theoretical concerns** (not yet realized in orthopedic data):
  * Tumour-promoting signalling in pre-existing neoplasia — theoretical, no evidence in joint delivery.
  * Heterotopic calcification or ossification — reported in some tendon-bone interface models but mitigated by dosing.
  * Immunogenicity — allogeneic MSC-EVs are generally low-immunogenicity; repeated dosing trials have not reported anti-EV antibodies of clinical significance.



**Contraindications** (extrapolated from whole-MSC trials and EV safety packages):

  * Active synovial sepsis.
  * Active malignancy in the treated joint (relative).
  * Uncontrolled autoimmune flare (relative — may help, may worsen; trial setting preferred).
  * Known allergy to product excipients (e.g., DMSO if used as cryoprotectant).



## 9\. Due-Diligence Checklist for Any Orthopedic Exosome Service

Following the broader [Exosome Therapy](exosome-therapy.html) framework and the Source Evaluation Framework, an orthopedic MSC-EV product should be evaluated on:

  1. **What is the source cell and donor screening?** — Umbilical cord, bone marrow, adipose, synovial. Donor serology and infectious-disease screening should be documented.
  2. **Is the product purified EVs, conditioned media, secretome, or lysate?** — Secretome/lysate products are not exosomes despite marketing.
  3. **Are MISEV2023 markers reported?** — CD9, CD63, CD81 positivity; GM130, calnexin negative; particle size, morphology by TEM or cryo-EM.
  4. **Is there a potency assay relevant to chondrogenesis / tenogenesis?** — e.g., MSC differentiation, TGF-β-driven COL2A1 induction, or migration assay.
  5. **What is the dose unit?** — particles per knee, particles per mL, protein per dose.
  6. **What is the clinical evidence base for this specific product?** — A clinic selling a generic umbilical-cord "exosome" off-label is different from a clinic administering a well-characterized product under a registered trial with PMID-traceable data.
  7. **Is the product delivered under a registered trial or IND?** — FDA has issued warnings on off-the-shelf exosome products; routine clinical use of unapproved MSC exosomes for orthopedic indications is a regulatory red flag as of 2026.



## 10\. Evidence Posture Summary

Indication | Preclinical evidence | Human evidence | Confidence  
---|---|---|---  
Knee OA (KL 2–3) | Strong (PMID [40529485](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40529485/), Su 2025, Song 2025) | Randomized human dose-escalation (PMID [40500748](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40500748/)); EVA-100 first-in-human | Moderate-positive early human  
Cartilage defect (focal) | Strong (scaffold + EV studies) | Sparse | Preclinical only  
Rotator cuff repair | Strong (Chen 2025, others) | Case series only | Preclinical only  
Achilles tendon | Moderate (animal) | Sparse | Preclinical only  
ACL / ligament | Limited (Yanuar 2023) | None | Speculative  
Meniscus | Limited | None | Speculative  
Intervertebral disc | Strong with hydrogels (Wang 2025 PMID [40613300](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40613300/)) | None | Preclinical only  
Bone healing adjunct | Moderate | None | Preclinical adjunct  
  
**Bottom line:** The strongest 2026 evidence base is for knee OA. Tendon and disc applications are promising but human-translation work has not yet produced Phase II data. Routine clinical use outside registered trials is not supported by current evidence and is a regulatory grey zone.

## 11\. Connections to Other Heretic Topics

  * [PRP and Stem Cell Therapies](prp-and-stem-cell-therapies.html) — PRP's active paracrine fraction is increasingly identified as its EV content; the two will likely converge.
  * [BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound)](bpc-157-body-protection-compound.html) and [TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4)](tb-500-thymosin-beta-4.html) — peptide orthobiologics with overlapping tendon-repair claims; comparing mechanisms is valuable.
  * [Peptide Therapy for Injuries](peptide-therapy-for-injuries.html) — peptide + EV combinations are an active research direction.
  * [Overview - Regenerative Medicine](regenerative-medicine-overview.html) — orthobiologics stack.
  * [Autophagy](autophagy.html) and [Mitochondrial Health](mitochondrial-health.html) — EV cargo intersects with senescence, mitophagy, and mitochondrial transfer.
  * [Hallmarks of Aging - Canonical Framework](hallmarks-of-aging.html) — joint aging is a useful model of multi-cellular ageing hallmarks.
  * Source Evaluation Framework — applies directly to orthobiologic sourcing decisions.



## Notes

  * **Priority next files in section:** Exosome Quality and Sourcing (MISEV2023 checklist), MSC Exosomes for Wound Healing and Burns, Engineered Exosome Drug Delivery.
  * **Section status update:** Adding this file brings the Exosome Therapy section from 3 to 4 files; the Index file's "Priority Files to Add" list still has open items.

## Sources

1. Wang Y, Kong Y, Du J, Qi L, Liu M, Xie S, et al. Injection of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells exosomes for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis: from preclinical to clinical research. J Transl Med. 2025;23:641. doi 10.1186/s12967-025-06623-y . PMID: 40500748 . PMCID: PMC12153132 . (PubMed 40500748, DOI 10.1186/s12967-025-06623-y, PMC12153132)
2. Welsh JA, Goberdhan DCI, O'Driscoll L, et al. Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches. J Extracell Vesicles. 2024;13(2):e12404. PMID: 38326288 . (PubMed 38326288)
3. Wang Z, Hu Z, Niu L, Xu Y, Qi Y. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on rat model. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1588841. doi 10.3389/fphar.2025.1588841 . PMID: 40529485 . PMCID: PMC12171193 . (PubMed 40529485, DOI 10.3389/fphar.2025.1588841, PMC12171193)
4. Su J, Qi Y, Niu L, Wang Y, Wei B, Ma B, Kong K, Zhai Z, Xu Y. The role of synovial mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in cartilage repair: a systematic review. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1617874. doi 10.3389/fphar.2025.1617874 . PROSPERO CRD420250651715. (DOI 10.3389/fphar.2025.1617874)
5. Chen J, Wang Z, Yi M, et al. Regenerative properties of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in rotator cuff tears. J Transl Med. 2025;23:60. doi 10.1186/s12967-024-06029-2 . PMID: 39478122 (cited as listed in the J Transl Med publication record). (DOI 10.1186/s12967-024-06029-2, PubMed 39478122)
6. Tan SSH, Tjio CKE, Wong KLY, Toh WS. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes for cartilage repair: a systematic review of preclinical in vivo studies. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2021. PMID: 32159464 . (PubMed 32159464)
7. Wang B, Xie D, Huang J, Huang Z, Weng W, Huang D, Zhang Y, Chen X. The Role of Exosome-Loaded Hydrogels in Improving Intervertebral Disc Degeneration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Animal Studies. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2025;30(6):38302. PMID: 40613300 . PROSPERO CRD420250649970. (PubMed 40613300)
8. Frontiers Immunology 2026 — Engineered exosomes for knee OA therapy review (doi 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1820504 ). (DOI 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1820504)